Under Tentaclic Arms of The Great Majapahit Empire
When a near neighboring state developed in the land of Tarik on the other side of the island, highland-culture Parahyangan people were settled under the ruler of Sunda kingdom; side by side with their coastal-culture fellow under the ruler of Galuh. Together they were known as Sunda-Galuh. The state were about 600 years old, with territory stretched from Sunda Strait to Cipamali and Serayu River. Despite the changing of ruler and territory expansion to the east, Sunda-Galuh inherited the whole system and faith from its predecessor: Salakanagara and Tarumanagara. For almost a century, they watched a young neighboring state grew to a kingdom of Majapahit, then expanded its territory beyond the sea and became a great empire. Stories and news of the strong prime minister Gajah Mada and the powerful fleets of Admiral Nala were like legends, spreads and flows from lower seashore into upper highland. In a century, a young neighboring state was already a great empire – with 98 tributary vassals stretched from Sumatera to New Guinea, Dharmasraya[1], Hujung Medini[2] and Temasek[3], including some regions in far land in the north.
As an empire with great dominion, Majapahit was like a giant mighty octopus with thousands tentacles fumbling around Nusantara[4]. To Sunda, Majapahit was a very good far-vanguard ally; its mighty maritime fleets help to guard the region from faraway nations like Mongol, while also provides trade route and diplomatic relation. At the same time, it was always be a suspicious close neighbor; who could attack at any time possible. But until the end of its glory, Sunda was practically never been a colony of it. Yet, it is undeniable and unavoidable that Majapahit’s influence penetrates the living culture of Sunda during its reign. Like any other state that time and later, religion and places were used as political means in controlling mass and expanding territories; so as Majapahit with its Hindu-Buddha syncretism and formation of social place.
Macrocosm, Microcosm, and the Shaping of Alun-alun
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| Surya Majapahit |
In earth and water, fire and wind,
Space, mind and reason, into eight,
Adding the ego faculty
So does My nature separate
Bhagavad Gita 7:4
Other than this one which is low
My higher nature you must know
The very Life, by which sustained
The cosmos is maintained
Bhagavad Gita 7:5
In the body of the God of gods
Arjuna could behold
The universe converged in one
And yet divided in many-fold
Bhagavad Gita 11:13
Behold the total universe
In My body you can see,
With moving and unmoving things,
All else you want to see
Bhagavad Gita 11:7
Surya Majapahit (the Sun of Majapahit) describes how great Buddhism being influenced by Hindu and local cults during that period. These selected verses of Bhagavad Gita probably are the easiest way to depict the concept of macro and microcosm in Buda Parwa[5] during Majapahit era. There are men as microcosm, with higher nature – the universe as macrocosm. Yet, the whole universe converged in one as microcosm to the sacred body of men (depicted as Krishna in human form), as macrocosm. It puts everything in its place, rules relation between men and nature, as well as relation between men and their divine spirit, which hold the whole universe.
This concept permeated into religious system, with local animism as the base; thus implemented in everyday life. It also defines how spaces regard into places. As religion was a legitimation for kings since the era of earlier kingdom like Salakanagara; it was not difficult to apply such thing also for Majapahit’s benefit. Hierarchy and orders based on the same cosmology applied for governmental system, social conduct, art, as well as space creation and orientation. Homes, settlements, cities, port, are all follows the major model of Kutaraja, the capital city with the palace compound. The forrest and other green open space are all kept as a sacred place and are forbidden to enter without any proper ceremony; the social system act as natural guard to this unwritten law. It was again adat, which act as guardian of this system and secured by council of elders and priests. The king being praised as divine-avatar and bears the title “Maharaja”.
In this system, kraton (imperial palace) is the governmental and cultural center[6]. Kraton and its compound being regarded as homogenic space, a blessed space which became sacred and being a miniature of macrocosm. The center of which is the King’s chamber, “dalem ageng”[7]; a connotation of Mahameru’s[8] Peak. It is circled by a ring of “Negara agung”[9], with inner courtyard as an outer limit. The next ring is called “mancanegara” (outer area), which is outside the limit of inner courtyard – but still inside the compound and kraton’s terrace; used for King’s audiences. The King could mostly be seen in dalem ageng, then in negara agung; and only regularly seen during the audiences in mancanegara. After that, there is pesisir and then siti inggil, built structure between kraton and a large open space called alun-alun. Areas outside the ring on which alun-alun are placed, called “daerah sabrang” (lit. area across) – stand on the last hierarchy of the compound.
If you visit Surakarta (Solo, Central Java) or Yogyakarta (Special Province Yogyakarta) today, where the Sultans as God-Kings resided; there are still kraton compounds following exactly the same cosmology as survived legacy of this great empire.
The space orientation of the capital city, as well as then followed by cities all around Majapahit’s vassals; are being fitted to the same cosmology – as depicted by “Surya Majapahit”. Shiva at the center, for highest hierarchy; then it gradually transforms to more sacred or profane space like orientation to the north as more sacred place than the south. Therefore, every open space and built structure inside the kraton compound and settlements are ordered under this system. As shown in ancient Salakanagara, limits are very important here. Houses of ministers and peasant settlements are being built around kraton compound, with regional regents to lead every one of them. People are not allowed to enter the compound without particular reason. But there, lies inside the palace compound were a place open for people. Still considers sacred as it located inside the compound, yet it stands on the outer ring as gate to the macrocosm. This place takes a form of a large open space, with two sacred banyan trees planted in the center and lines of trees enclosed. It is called “Alun-alun”.
There are two large open spaces in the capital city of Majapahit. One placed north to the kraton, and the other on the south. The one in the north is considered more sacred, compare to the other; thus makes it a more important place for ceremonies and celebrations, besides its role as symbol of the King’s reign and power. It is placed at the center, north to the kraton; with a temple of Shiva on its East side, makes a very strong relation between kraton, alun-alun, and the religious place. It is enclosed by streets and major roads lead out of the compound. It was used to held important celebrations and religious ceremonies and rituals, as at once symbolically shows the divine power of the king. South alun-alun is a more profane place, yet it is not a regular place as it is still within a sacred compound of kraton. It was used for military rehearsal and is open for people to do everyday market and festivals.
The early concept of alun-alun as described above, is what makes it different from the Greek “agora”. It was not created by means of democracy over people supremacy; instead politically it was created by means of the supreme power of the king, and divinely created as a sacred place offered in ceremonies to the gods. It was a symbol of harmony and between macro and microcosm, a gate to kraton as a macrocosm. Bears a legacy of ancient animism, it was also used for festival and market.
Thus it happened, spaces being defined into places and the King supremacy assured by divinely symbols in places and faith upon micro and macrocosm. It is only logic that this concept became vital and so being applied all around the empire, from the core area of Majapahit to the tributary vassals; and so made its way to penetrate the realm of Sunda-Galuh as a close neighboring state.
Riung Mungpulung and Reinterpretation of “Lapang Tegalan”[10]
Nobody knows for sure if the concept of alun-alun derived from the ancient sacred ground in the form of lapang tegalan. But since the animism cult in Java was a development from earlier settlement rooted in Sundanese culture, it was only natural for people during that period to accept the concept as it similar and in line with their culture. The influence of Javanese culture can be seen in simple social life in Sunda with its ladang culture[11]. Hindunese caste system was never really being used in the Sundanese culture, and so never got into the social relation in the society. The result is guided old rituals that being synchronized with the coming of sawah culture[12], which mainly Javanese.
The old rituals are being fitted and synchronized, with main component intact. Food and the cycle of rice are always regarded as vital, thus raises the need of riung mungpulung: a feast, a social gathering, a must. The migration of the Javanese with the sawah culture brought the concept of ‘bale patemon’[13] into everyday-life in settlements, cities and ‘dayeuh’ [capital city]. It acts like a miniature of alun-alun in the settlements, despite that it is not a real open space. With its roof, it differs itself from alun-alun and made a simple solution towards the hot weather. It was then used like terraces in houses compound, a profane social space for neighbors to gather and develop a fraternal-like relation.
[1]Today West Sumatera
[2] Covered parts of Malaysia today: Pahang, Johor, Selangor and Kedah, Langkasuka, Trengganu and Kelantan, Kedah, Jerai and Kanjapiniran.
[3] Today Singapore
[4] See Glossary (B 1)
[5] A form of syncretism between Hindu, Buddha and local cults, as Stated in Purwaka Caruban manuscript
[6] Handinoto, “Alun-alun Sebagai Identitas Kota Jawa, Dulu dan Sekarang”, p.3
[7] Javanese, lit. “great inside”
[8] Sacred volcano Mahameru, place of the afterlife.
[9] Lit. “Big state”
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